The world really does function in cycles. I recall that, more than 10 years ago, I often used the EU and its construction as a model or case study for the Gulf Cooperation Council countries. Today, I find myself doing the opposite increasingly often.

In “The Sun Always Rises,” Ernest Hemingway wrote: “How did you go bankrupt? Two ways. Gradually, then suddenly.” This also applies to Francafrique — and the “suddenly” is happening in 2025.